Theology by the Slice: "On the Liturgical Site of Theology"

This week, we were pleased to welcome back Prof. Fr. John Manoussakis of the Holy Cross Philosophy Department. Fr. Manoussakis spoke to us a year ago about St. Augustine’s Confessions. He returned on Wednesday with an equally engaging presentation on theology and the liturgy.

Fr. Manoussakis began by attempting to establish a definition for theology. Theology literally means “God-speaking” and it seems akin to other “-logies” like biology, sociology, and physiology. The similarity, however, is the issue: theology seems to mean “talk or study about God” in the same way biology means “study about life.” Yet, a closer examination reveals that theology is much more than just the study of God.

Theology can also be understood to mean “God is speaking.” Our theology is initiated by a speaking God. Think of the first verse of St. John’s Gospel: “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.” Logos, or Word, is the Second Person of the Holy Trinity; it is a hypostasis of the divine essence. Our theology is a response to God’s first calling, because God first called us into being by speaking to us.

In theology, God is speaking through us. Recall the words of Our Lord that “For it is not you who speak, but it is the Spirit of your Father who speaks in you” (Matt. 10:22), and of St. Paul that “no one can say ‘Jesus is Lord’ [i.e., “theologize’] except by the Holy Spirit” (1 Cor. 12:3). Theology is ultimately grounded in the Trinity. We speak to God (the Father), in God (the Son or Logos) and in God (the Holy Spirit). All theology is either Trinitarian, or it is something else entirely. Hence, the Religious Studies Department is so called because it incorporates other the study of other religions; for it to be called a Theology Department, it would have to be exclusively Christian.

Theology is either a logos about god, or it is addressed to God. If it is the latter, then it is prayer. Evagrius Ponticus (345-399 AD), an ancient monk and ascetic, said that “the one who prays is a theologian, and the one who is a theologian, prays. Jean-Luc Marion, the postmodern French philosopher, extended the role of the theologian into the liturgical realm, saying “Only the bishop merits, in the full sense, the title of theologian” because it is he who celebrates the Eucharist with the fullness of Holy Orders.

There is a difference between a scientific” study of religion and theology. To use a metaphor by C.S. Lewis, it is the difference between seeing the light and seeing by the light. Imagine a dark room with a shaft of light illumining a part of it. One can observe the light from a distance, but would remain ignorant of what the light shows. By moving into the light, one can see what it reveals.

Fr. Manoussakis then turned to theology in the liturgy. We often say that we are “going to church” when we mean we are going to Mass. This is not an accident, because we identify the Eucharist with the Church. Ancient texts refer to the Eucharist as a synaxis, or gathering-together, which is nearly synonymous with the word for Church, ekklesia. It is unfortunate that the Sacraments have been divided into seven seemingly discrete forms, because every Sacrament is sanctified through the Eucharist. Only Holy Orders necessarily remains within the context o the liturgy, which is again connected to he Eucharist.

There is a difference between the Christian and pagan terms for the church. The term “House of God” is actually better suited to pagan worship. Ancient temples were considered the actual dwelling places of Athena and Apollo, and sacrifices were usually performed outside. Likewise, only the High Priest could enter the Holy of Holies in the Temple of Solomon, and everyone else had to remain outside. For Christians, however, God’s presence is manifest through the gathering of the people. He does not dwell in the church in some vague sense, but is embodied in the worshipers.

The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, the liturgy used by Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches, demonstrates the manifestation of God in the worshipers. There is a part of the Liturgy called the Small Entrance, where the Bishop enters and the people say “Come, let us worship and bow before Christ.” The people address the Bishop because the Bishop, in his office, is Christ. He is in persona Christi. During the liturgy, we are no longer in history but are in the Kingdom of Heaven. This is why the Divine Liturgy begins “Blessed is the kingdom of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, now and forever and to the ages of ages.”

Likewise, during the Great Entrance, all the priests, deacons and acolytes leave the altar, and processes out and back to present the gifts. Only the Bishop remains, because he is Christ and is waiting for the gifts to be given to him.

When the Bishop enters, the people become God in history. Without a bishop, there is no Church, in the same way that without a professor a group of students is not a class. The Bishop is the one who makes the many one. And, in the universal Church, it is the Bishop of Rome, the Pope, who makes the entire people of God one.

We sincerely thank Fr. Manoussakis for his fascinating and informative presentation.

He also wanted to share with us this quote by St. Dionysius the Areopagite (fifth century) about prayer, but unfortunately didn't have time to do so during his presentation:

(…as you know, and yourself, and many of our holy brethren, were gathered together to the depositing of the Life-springing and God-receptive body, and when there were present also James, the brother of God, and Peter, the foremost and most honoured pinnacle of the Theologians, when it was determined after the depositing, that every one of the hierarchs should celebrate, as each was capable, the Omnipotent Goodness of the supremely Divine Weakness), he, after the Theologians, surpassed, as you know, all the other divine instructors, being wholly entranced, wholly raised from himself, and experiencing the pain of his fellowship with the things celebrated, and was regarded as an inspired and divine Psalmist by all, by whom he was heard and seen and known, and not known. And why should I say anything to thee concerning the things there divinely spoken? For, if I do not forget myself, many a time do I remember to have heard from thee certain portions of those inspired songs of praise (Divine Names 3.681D-684A)

Not only had he learned the divine things but he had also suffered them” (DN 2.648B)

The monumental twentieth-century theologian Hans Urs von Blathasar commented on these passages as follows:

The whole theology of the Areopagite is for him a single, sacred liturgical act” (Glory of the Lord, vol. 2, 153) and “because all theology is for him a glorious celebration of the divine mysteries and therefore has its archetype and patterns in the liturgical songs of heavens (160) and finally “theology is exhausted in the act of wondering adoration before the unsearchable beauty in every manifestation (170). 

Theology by the Slice: "The Church, the Vatican, the Holy See at the UN"

Last week (11/12) we had the honor of hearing a talk by Fr. Robert John Araujo, S.J. Fr. Araujo is the John Courtney Murray, S.J. Professor Emeritus at Loyola University Chicago. To list just a few of his accomplishments: he earned his J.S.D. from Columbia Law School and his B.C.L. from Oxford University, and entered the Society of Jesus in 1986. He was a legal advisor to the Standard Oil Company, and has worked in private law practice. He has been an advisor to the Holy See on public and international law issues since 1997, and he has represented the Holy See on various committees at the United Nations, including the Preparatory Committee for the International Criminal Court and the International Convention on Human Cloning. He is an Ad Hoc Advisor to the Secretariat of State in the Vatican City State, and contributes to the blog Mirror of Justice, which is devoted to the development of Catholic legal theory.

Fr. Araujo delivered a presentation to us on the history of the Church’s (and the Vatican’s and the Holy See’s) involvement in international affairs, and especially the Holy See’s role in the United Nations.

He began by telling us that this talk was prompted, in part, by an op-ed in the Boston Globe by one James Carroll, wherein he called for the abolition of the Vatican City State. In offering some fraternal correction to Mr. Carroll, Fr. Araujo would like him (and us) to recall these words form scripture: “Go therefore and make disciples of all Nations” (Matt. 28:19) and “Go into the whole world and proclaim the good news to all of creation” (Mark 16:15).

Father next defined some of the terms that relate to the Church and international affairs. The Holy See is the proper person involved in diplomacy, and it consists of the Pope, the Roman Curia, and any delegates it sends to international bodies. The Church, on the other hand, is the entire People of God in the hierarchical Church, and the Vatican City State is a small country established by the Lateran Treaty of 1929.

Although the Vatican has only been recently established as a city-state, the Holy See is not new to diplomacy. As far back as the pontificates of St. Leo the Great (440-461) and St. Gregory the Great (590-604) the Holy See sent envoys to the Roman Imperial Government. In fact, these Church-state relations constitute the oldest diplomatic corps in the world. When the Papal States were established, delegates were still sent out who represented the Holy See to sovereign European powers. And even after the Italian Risorgimento, when Italy was unified and the Papal States were dissolved, the Holy See was active in diplomacy. Often (but not always), the See served as an impartial arbiter in international disputes, and gave voice to a higher moral order and the Natural Law.

The Holy See has also been a strong proponent of modern international organizations. Pope Benedict XV was an avid supporter of founding the League of Nations, where nations could amicably work to resolve international disputes (in fact, it’s possible that US President Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points were based on Benedict’s 1917 exhortation to the belligerents of World War I). Pope Benedict wanted the Holy See to join the league, and most nations didn’t oppose its entry. Italy, however, stood against it because of the 1915 Treaty of London, in which they agreed to prevent the Holy See’s involvement in the war. Nonetheless, Benedict was still active in international affairs, especially in providing relief efforts after the war.

During and after the Second World War, Pope Pius XII felt the need for an international organization where nations could work out disagreements and pursue common interests (and he had long supported the role of Natural Law in international governance). He favored the Holy See entering the United Nations, and he worked with American diplomat Myron Taylor to make it happen. US Secretary of State Cordell Hull, however, opposed the entry of “micro-states” into the UN, because he thought they were too small to fulfill their obligations. Still, the Holy See was able to send observers to the San Francisco Conference, which laid the foundations for the UN. By 1956, it sent had become a charter member of the International Atomic Energy Agency, because Pius XII was persuaded that the Holy See was needed to provide a moral voice on this important commission. This signaled the beginning of the Holy See’s role of giving voice to the moral order at the UN.

Although Pope St. John XXIII gave cautious support to the role of the UN, even more progress was made by Pope Bl. Paul VI. Pope Paul developed a personal friendship with U Thant, Secretary General of the UN. The Holy See earned Permanent Observer status in the UN in 1964, and Thant convinced Paul to give an address to the General Assembly in 1965.

Pope St. John Paul II praised the UN as a place of diplomacy and peace. John Paul advanced the cause of human rights and the Holy See’s sovereignty and in 1995 spoke to the General Assembly on the rights of nations. Pope Benedict XVI addressed the UN in 2008 and (in Fr. Araujo’s opinion) worked to promote how Catholic thought contributed to the development of law and human relations. Discussions are currently in progress about Pope Francis addressing the General Assembly.

In the fall of 2002, Switzerland (which had been a Permanent Observer like the Holy See) was becoming a full member of the UN. Afterward, the question arose as to whether there was anything in international law preventing the Holy See from becoming a full member as well. Fr. Araujo wrote a paper outlining the pros and cons of becoming a full member, and he ultimately found that there were no impediments. It was thus the Holy See’s call to choose whether to become a full member or remain an observer. They chose to remain an observer, thinking it the best way to remain neutral and not appear to have a stake in the outcomes of difficult negotiations.

Yet, it was necessary to define the precise terms of the Holy See’s status as a Permanent Observer. Fr. Araujo wrote and the Holy See submitted a proposal to Secretary General and the Permanent Five of the Security Council. Some minor changes were made, and on July 1, 2003 the proposal was approved without a vote (essentially, unanimously) by the General Assembly.

The document, Participation of the Holy See in the Work of the United Nations, was the first formal document that gave the Holy See official recognition of its role as a State Permanent Observer. The document stipulates that, if the Holy See is a member of a treaty or convention, or a proposed treaty or convention, it participates as a full member of the UN and has an alphabetical seat on the main floor. When acting as an Observer, the Holy See maintains good relations with the other delegations that are beneficial to the UN’s goals.

The Holy See still serves an important role in the UN. When acting as an Observer, its delegates can serve as a conduit between other delegates who are forbidden by their governments from speaking to each other. The Holy See has also served as a moral voice against evil in the UN, such as proposals that some States wanted to introduce in the Treaty on Human Cloning. Always the holy See approaches these controversial issues with arguments that are accessible to human reason and appeal to the objective intelligence of all.

Ultimately, the Holy See pursues the common good of every person with good will. This pursuit of the good is its role in the international body, and with help from others of good will, it can achieve it.

We sincerely thank Fr. Araujo for his illuminating and informative presentation. It was an honor to have such a distinguished person speak to us, and one who has worked hard for the Church and the common good of all.

Theology by the Slice: "Catholics in Business"

Two weeks ago (11/5), we had the pleasure of hearing a talk by Mr. Timothy Gavin. Mr. Gavin is the founder and CEO of Code:Red, a company that helps investment professionals with research management technology. More importantly, he is the younger brother of our own Fr. John Gavin. Instead of regaling us with tales from our advisor’s youth, however, he chose to talk about living as a Catholic in the business world.

Mr. Gavin began by noting that business and capitalism are often popularly portrayed as calamitous and corrupt (think of films like It’s a Wonderful Life and Wall Street). In the face of this negative portrayal, one wonders if Catholics should be involved in business at all. Also considering Our Lord’s admonition that it would be easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter heaven, and the spiritual prospects for Catholics in business seem bleak. Yet, in that same passage, Christ also reminds the apostles that in God all things are possible. Thus, with the help of grace, it is possible for a Catholic businessman to use his talents for the good.

Also consider capitalism and democracy: there are elements of good and bad in both, and we have to consider to what degree capitalism rewards greed. To some degree it can, but it can also reward creativity and create jobs. It can also produce positive social outcomes. For example, when a tsunami strikes in Asia, citizens of the United States give their own money to aid relief efforts, not the government. On the other hand, in more socialized nations (like in Europe) citizens do not often react to these disasters, expecting their governments to provide relief money.

Pope St. John Paul II saw that in communist nations individuals exist to serve the elites. He considered capitalism a better economic system, but warned that it needed to have its root in charity to succeed. Without charity, capitalism becomes just as bad as communism.

Pope Francis, although he has spoken on the dignity of being employed and the value of industriousness, has also been critical of Trickle-down Economics. Yet, as Cardinal Dolan has noted, we need to be mindful that “capitalism” in third-world countries is much more exploitative than American capitalism.

Mr. Gavin then shared some lessons he’s learned about living the faith in the business world.

He first told us about the need for total honesty. For example, he told us how if his company notices that one of their clients is paying for more servers than they need, they offer to reduce the cost. Although these clients sign contracts that would allow the company to charge them a higher rate, this would effectively be stealing. By begin honest, one can foster good relations with clients and others.

With regard to employees, it is important to offer them room to succeed. Yet, when an employee is put into a position they are ill-suited to, he drags down the rest of the company. Moreover, many such mismatched people find themselves struggling in their positions, and often are relieved to be let go because they are failing. Those in business should also remember to give back to newer employees. They must remember where they came from and help out people just entering the business world. One should also be generous, and not feel the need to recklessly spend all the money one makes.

Finally, as a father Mr. Gavin tries to instill the virtues of work ethic, charity and good manners into his children. He tries to be home by the evening so as to eat dinner with his family and help his children with their homework. He also avoids working evenings and weekends to the best of his ability, so as to maximize his time with his family.

We thank Mr. Gavin for his very interesting presentation. It’s good to hear about living the faith in a profession many of us may be entering into. 

Theology by the Slice: "The Church in Hungary"

Last Wednesday we heard a wonderful talk by Mrs. Annamaria Nickle. Mrs. Nickle was born in Hungary, and talked to us about the history of the Catholic Church in her native land.

Hungary is a small country in central Europe, about the size of Indiana. Its language is unique because it cannot be traced within the other linguistic families of Europe. About a third of Hungarians live abroad, much of the population having departed because of the Second World War. The country is predominately Catholic, about 60 to 66% so (at least in name), immediately followed by Calvinists, then Lutherans, and a small percentage of Jews, Orthodox and Muslims. Atheism, however, is quickly increasing among Hungarians.

 The state of Hungary was first incorporated in 895 AD, and it was inhabited by a pagan people. The early Hungarians loved their land, and were visited by many Christian missionaries on horseback. Ss. Cyril and Methodius also evangelized in early Hungary. In the ninth century, it became clear that if the people were to survive they would have to become Christian, and Grand Prince Géza began to establish Christianity.

It was his son King St. Stephen I, however, who chose to establish the Western church over the Eastern. St. Stephen received a crown from Pope Sylvester II, and upon receiving it he offered it to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Thus, Hungary is called “Mary’s Nation” and Mary has received the title “Queen of Hungarians.” In fact, Pope St. John Paul II wrote a letter to the Hungarian people in 2001 calling the crown “the symbol of their national identity, of their history and of the thousand-year-old culture of their kingdom and, adorned with the title of ‘Sacred Crown’” and saying it is venerated as a relic. St. Stephen wanted to root out paganism and Christianity flourished under him. Under the dynasty begun by his son Emeric, Hungary has produced countless saints, including Saints Stanislaus, Hedwig, Irene and Elizabeth of Hungary.

The Turks occupied Hungary for 150 years. Although they had relative tolerance for the Hungarian people, Christians were treated as second class citizens. Islam, however, never took root in the country. The Protestant Reformation, on the other hand, did take root there, and the Society of Jesus was active in Hungary during the Counter-Reformation. Afterward, until the twentieth century, Hungary was a part of a dual monarchy with Austria.

Moving into the twentieth century, we see that the Church in Hungary greatly suffered under Communist rule, but also produced many inspiring heroes. Chief among these is József Mindszenty (1892-1975), the Cardinal-Archbishop of Eszterglom and Prince Primate of Hungary. Cardinal Mindszenty, an activist for religious freedom, was arrested on charges of conspiracy by both the Nazis and the Communists. He was brutally tortured, and even given mind-altering drugs. After being released from prison, he had to stay at the US embassy in Budapest for fifteen years. He finally left Hungary in 1971, and died in Vienna four years later. Cardinal Mindszenty is revered as one of the most dramatic figures in the fight against Communism, and the case for his beatification has been opened.

Another important figure is Bl. Vilmos Apor, Bishop of Győr (the uncle of theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar). During World War II, he protested against the persecution of Jews and offered protection to women and children. The Soviets discovered that he was protecting them, and he was shot during a raid. He was beatified in 1977.

The religious orders in Hungary also suffered greatly under Communist rule. In 1953, most religious orders were banned by the Communists, and their property was seized. With the exception of the Franciscans, Benedictines and a female teaching order, the orders were wiped out. It was forbidden to wear the religious habit. Most Jesuits moved to the United States. A group of Cistercian nuns, however, was able to survive underground and they attended Mass and prayed in secret. They never knew whom to trust, and they were constantly at risk of being discovered and arrested.

Having lost their buildings and property, it was incredible difficult for the orders to rebuild after the fall of Communism. Also, they had had no experience of Vatican II, and the priests who eventually came back were very old when they did so. It is interesting, however, that the most traditional orders have been doing the best; an order of Carmelite nuns, for example, has been doing so well that they built a new monastery.

Pope St. John Paul II visited in August of 1991, marking the first time a Pope ever visited Hungary. Things were very uncertain at the time, with the Russians still occupying the country. The Pope’s command “Do not be afraid” brought great comfort to the afflicted nation. He began his visit at the tomb of Cardinal Mindszenty, calling him a testament of devotion to Christ, the Church, and patriotism. He also praised the religious who had survived under Communism.

Mrs. Nickle concluded that Hungary is a nation of great beginnings, with many Saints and heroes, both Medieval and modern. Nonetheless, the country is confronted today by materialism, secularism and relativism. There is hope; recently, and to the European Union’s chagrin, the Hungarian parliament amended their constitution to define life as beginning at conception and affirming that marriage is between one man and one woman. Still, Hungarian Christians are in need of the New Evangelization to recover their wonderful heritage.

We thank Mrs. Nickle for her time in preparing this fascinating presentation.